External means of enriching vocabulary

It stands to reason that the Norman Conquest and the subsequent history left deep traces in the English language, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connected with such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places of importance. For example:

- Government and legislature:

government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court, justice, judge, crime, prison, condemn, sentence, parliament, etc.

- military life:

army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general, colonel, lieutenant, major, etc.

- religion:

religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity, etc.

- city crafts:

painter, tailor, carpenter, etc. (but country occupations remained English: shepherd, smith, etc.)

- pleasure and entertainment:

music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure, supper, dinner, pork, beef, mutton, etc. (but the corresponding names of domestic animals remained English: pig, cow, sheep)

- words of everyday life:

air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush, catch, change, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost, etc.

- relationship:

aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin.

The place of the French borrowings within the English language was different:

1. A word may be borrowed from the French language to denote notions unknown to the English up to the time:

Government, parliament, general, colonel, etc.

2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:

English French

micel large

here army

ēa river

3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylistically different:

English French

to begin to commence

to work to labour

to leave to abandon

life existence

look regard

ship vessel

As we see, the French borrowings are generally more literary or even bookish, the English word – a common one; but sometimes the English word is more literary. Compare:

Foe (native, English) – enemy (French borrowing)

4.Sometimes the English language borrowed many words with the same word-building affix. The meaning of the affix in this case became clear to the English-speaking people, and they began to add it to the English words, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance: the suffix –ment entered the language within such words as “government”, “parliament”, “agreement”, but later there appeared such English-French hybrids, such as fulfillment, amazement

Native borrowed

fatherly paternal

- from the Common Germanic:

native borrowed

Earlier later

(Old English borrowing) (Middle English borrowing)

Mint money

Inch ounce

6. Due to the great number of French borrowings these appeared in the English language such families of words, which though similar in their root meaning, are different in origin:

native borrowed

New English